I wrote this a few years ago, but I think it addresses aspects of Tammy's thesis... and I'm not suggest anyone needs to move. :-)

The Need to Develop More Female Leaders

Increased global business activity creates a corresponding increase in the need for effective, knowledgeable leaders with a varied skill set, including ethical behavior, cultural understanding, and a broad world view. Global operations require coordinated activities across the whole spectrum of business activity, not merely sales or marketing. Success results upon relationships, including those at the most senior executive levels relationships made far more difficult by cultural differences (Jellnek & Adler, 1988, p.17).

A hugely untapped source of global leadership comes from the ranks of female executives. Unfortunately, the negative publicity surrounding Carly Fiorina's leadership, for example, has done little to advance the cause for eliminating the glass ceiling, let alone the glass border that limits the advancement of female executives from key overseas positions. However, female executives offer multi-national companies (MNCs) leadership traits and skills not necessarily found in their male counterparts, and when properly leveraged, they may offer organizations a competitive advantage in foreign markets and reduce leadership risk.

It must be stated that the consequences for female executives who fail to prepare and market themselves for overseas leadership positions can be severe. Research suggests "women who get passed over for international assignments may find their careers stalled as a result... Eighty percent of human resources executives polled said that global experience is becoming a must for advancement in large corporations" (Fingar, 2001, para.8). It is important not only for the mitigation of leadership risk overseas but in the home country as well, that female leaders are developed and encouraged to accept overseas assignments.

Gender Implications for Global Leaders

The post Cold War era has opened numerous markets previously closed by central planning, worthless currencies and inferior products. While Eastern Europe continues to regain its feet, China has emerged from the blocks at a full sprint. China's form of hybrid communism has embraced Western markets and created a wellspring for outsourced consumer goods. This in turn has created a thriving middle class and a massive exodus from farmlands to the cities where employment hovers at 99%. U.S. firms in particular have recognized the potential for locating manufacturing facilities in China. High tech firms such as Advanced Micro Devices, Freescale, Intel and Applied Materials have built manufacturing facilities throughout China and other developing technology markets.

China is just one example of the pull on domestic organizations to expand overseas and minimize the financial risk posed by competitors. As a result, organizations have had to rethink their business models. New global strategies now seek to promote "extensive on-going operations within foreign countries, strategic management across cultures, more foreign personnel throughout the company, [and] more joint ventures and strategic alliances to gain access to new technology" (Jellnek & Adler, 1988, p.12).

Taking an overseas leadership assignment presents numerous risks for male or female executives. First, there is the impact on family as they are uprooted and implanted in a foreign culture where customs, laws, cuisine and language may differ drastically from the home country. Next there is the potential for missed opportunities as the executive remains out of sight of decision makers and subordinates. There is also the risk that the leadership style that worked in the home country will be less effective in the new environment, and host country management may be resistant to change from a foreign leader. There is also the risk the foreign subsidiary may, through no fault of its own, fall to the chopping block as domestic issues force the organization to reconsider its exposure overseas. Political risk and currency (exchange) risk in some markets may eventually exceed the organization's level of risk tolerance or ability to mitigate risk. These risks require a skilled leader who is able to readily adapt to change and forge a new vision for the organization. Chowdhury (2002) states that global leaders must encompass a variety of traits, including "championing of international strategy (visioning the future), acting as a cross-border coach (giving and receiving feedback from international teams), cognitive complexity (the ability to step back and see new patterns), and emotional maturity (being able to handle emotional crises)" (p.37).

These traits are part of a larger characteristic known as global mindset, something that differentiates the global manager from the expatriate. "Expatriates are defined by location, as managers who are working in a different country from their own. Global managers, by contrast, are defined by their state of mind" (Chowdhury, 2002, p.38). It is this state of mind that frequently comes into question when considering a female executive for an overseas position. While there are universal risks, as stated earlier, for leaders regardless of gender, there is also perceived leadership risk assigned specifically to female executives.

Catalyst, a New York-based research firm, concluded that "preconceptions about the average woman's ability to handle an international assignment keep many women from ever being considered for such jobs" (Fingar, 2001, para.2). Some of these preconceptions include a reluctant spouse, concern for children, a lack of acceptance by host country employees, and an inability to adapt. As a result, female executives are frequently cast into stereotypes (Fingar, 2001, para.3).

"Research on sex roles and managerial characteristics has tended to reinforce the rather limited view of management skills and leadership most of us have acquired a view identifying leadership with power and potency with adversarial control" state Jellnek & Adler (1988, p.13). They indicate studies identify "stereotypically 'masculine' (aggressive) characteristics as managerial and stereotypically 'feminine' (cooperative and communicative) characteristics us unmanagerial."

These stereotypes place the female executive at a distinct disadvantage when in fact they actually have a distinct advantage over their male counterparts. In Japan, for example, female expatriates are not expected to adopt local cultural behavioral norms and are granted a higher degree of social and professional freedom than their female Japanese counterparts (Jellnek & Adler, 1988, p.13). "A woman may be better suited than a man for assignments in some parts of the world, such as in cultures that value subtlety in communications or that equate assertiveness with aggression" (Wah, 1998, para.20).

The soft touch does not go unnoticed by male managers accustomed to a more authoritarian, abrasive style that is typically seen in (although not exclusive to) men. "Certain leadership styles may be more or less effective than others depending on the ethnic group followers belong to and the tasks that are being performed" (Jung & Avolio, 1999, para.47). Female leaders are easily identifiable in foreign cultures not accustomed to them and consequently gain and maintain attention. Jellnek & Adler (1988) observe, "Foreign clients were curious about them, wanted to meet them, and remembered them after their first meeting. It was therefore somewhat easier for the women than for their male colleagues to gain access to foreign clients' time and attention." (p.16)

Stereotypes associated with female executives assigned to overseas posts are slowly being overcome, so organizations must formulate and execute plans to ensure their success and create further opportunity for other female leaders. Failure to do so presents a huge opportunity missed and fails to mitigate leadership risk. "Women in the US account for 49 per cent of middle management ranks, from which expatriates are typically chosen. But they make up only 13 per cent of US managers sent abroad" (Maitland, 2000, para.2). Women present a great, untapped pool of talent from which MNCs can draw and mitigate leadership risk.

Developing Female Executives within MNCs

There are numerous overseas opportunities for female executives, but many institutional issues and preconceptions by female leaders themselves are often limiting. Institutional issues include a lack of organizational planning and development, and female-specific issues include a reluctance to find and develop relationships with mentors. These present specific organizational risks in terms of leadership. Organizations must "implement formal policies and programs that offer women global assignments throughout their careers, improve employment support for dual-career couples and offer mentoring and networking support for women while abroad" (Fingar, 2001, para.10). Development of female leaders for overseas assignments cannot be a passive activity on the part of the organization or the executive. According to Professor Judy McGregor? (as cited in Hunter, 2000):

There are female issues that can best be addressed by female specific training; it may be a confidence issue; it may be in the area of financial competency or it may be an issue of juggling career and family. Most women prefer the affiliation and networking that comes from sharing with others of similar experience. At the end of the day, people should choose the learning model that best suits their learning needs, whether they be male or female. And we see that women generally learn better in female classrooms or on female oriented programmes. (para.14)

Gender specific training also helps female leaders understand critical differences in the way women address "information, relationships, emotion and the difference in their perceptions and management styles" as compared to their male counterparts (Hunter, 2000, para.12). Unfortunately, some organizations are reluctant to implement gender-specific training and policies "because they don't want to be guilty of reverse discrimination. They also fear that by focusing on gender-inequality issues in specific countries, they will fuel negative stereotypes about those countries" (Wah, 1998, para.7).

Career advancement is not the only reason for pursuing overseas assignments, however. Linehan & Walsh (1999) found that international assignments also improve self-confidence in addition to increasing professional visibility and opportunities for promotion. However, even if the organization seeks and prepares female leaders, they must also prepare themselves. This is one reason why finding a mentor is a critical step for career advancement. Mentors are higher ranking, influential, senior leaders with greater experience and knowledge and "who are committed to providing upward mobility and support to a protege's professional career (Kram, 1985; Collins, 1983; Roche, 1979)" (Linehan & Walsh, 1999, para.4).

Mentoring relationships developed at the home office contribute to female career success overseas and facilitate repatriation afterwards, but mentoring remains less common among women than men.

Once overseas, women often find themselves more isolated than men and the survey reveals a big gap between the support they need and in fact receive. Some 72 per cent want a mentor in their home country but only 30 per cent have one. Nearly 80 per cent want a formal network but only 4 per cent have one; and 44 per cent say they want such a network for their partner or family but only 3 per cent have one. (Maitland, 2000, para.15)

Mentoring may actual play a far more significant role in developing female leaders "as female managers face greater organisational, interpersonal, and individual barriers to advancement (Burke and McKeen?, 1994; Collins, 1983; Kanter, 1982; Farris and Ragan, 1981)" (Linehan & Walsh, 1999, para.1). However, "women may be less likely than men to seek mentors because they may fail to recognise the importance of gaining a sponsor, and may 'naively assume that competence is the only requisite for advancement in the organisation' (1989, p.6)" (Linehan & Walsh, 1999, para.15).

Both organizational and individual understanding of gender issues is critical to promoting an environment where female executives can flourish. However, operating in a gender sensitive environment may not be as productive as one might think. "Ironically, many American women say that a less modern, diverse and competitive business culture is one reason for their success" (Foroohar & Radcliffe, 2003, para.8).

It should also be considered that many of the character traits that propel female executives upwards can also hinder them, especially in an overseas assignment. Wah (1998) observes that ego is often a double-edged sword because female executives "have come a long way in achieving workplace equality and naturally want to hold on to their hard-earned rights. It's also possible that the outcome- and task-oriented nature of the American business culture makes them feel they have to 'act like a man' to succeed." (para.24) This behavior can be highly counter-productive in many societies.

A final consideration in the development of female leaders is not only the opportunity overseas assignments present for individual advancement, but the example it sets for other women, especially in a foreign culture. In England, for example, U.S. female executives have been far more successful than their British counterparts. "Women hold 12.4 percent of board seats in the United States, but only 6.2 percent in Britain. Likewise, while 45 percent of Fortune 500 companies have more than one woman on their boards, only 15 percent of top British companies do" (Foroohar & Radcliffe, 2003, para.7). The example set by female executives from the U.S. can also pave the way for legislative changes as well as changes in social consciousness in the host country.

Conclusion

MNCs are in need of talented, experienced executives to fill overseas leadership positions and minimize leadership risk. Ironically, while half of management positions in the U.S. are held by women, only a fraction of overseas positions are. This is the result of both an institutional and individual lack of understanding of gender issues and fear to address them. Organizations must proactively develop female executives for these positions as these women also develop themselves. Mentoring plays a key role, and the example set by successful female leaders will not only enrich their organizations, but the foreign cultures where they will leave their mark. Organizations face a greater level of leadership risk with overseas assignments and the development of female executives for these positions is one way to mitigate that risk.

References

• Chowdhury, S. (2002). Organization 21C: Someday all organizations will lead this way. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.
• Fingar, C. (2001, January). Stay-at-home careers? Export Today's Global Business, 17(1), 62. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.
• Foroohar, R. & Radcliffe, L. (2003, November 17). Unless you're queen. Newsweek, 142(20), E28. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.
• Hunter, A. (2000, April). Leading ladies. NZ Business, 14(3), 32-33. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.
• Jellnek, M. & Adler, N. J. (1988, February). Women: World-class managers for global competition. Academy of Management Executive, 2(1), 11. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.
• Jung, D. I. & Avolio, B. J. (1999, April). Effects of leadership style and followers' cultural orientation on performance in group and individual task conditions. Academy of Management Journal, 42(2), 208. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.
• Linehan, M. & Walsh, J. S. (1999). Mentoring relationships and the female managerial career. Career Development International, 4(7), 348. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.
• Maitland, A. (2000, October 20). America's gender gap travels abroad: Women in business. Financial Times, 16. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.
• Pomeroy, A. (2005, July). Ethical leaders needed. HR Magazine, 50(7),16. Retrieved September 25, 2005 from EBSCO.
• Wah, L. (1998, September). Surfing the rough sea. Management Review, 87(8), 25-29. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from UOP electronic library.